Long-term effects of fathers' depressed mood on youth internalizing symptoms in early adulthood

While an accumulating body of research has documented increased risk of psychopathology among children of depressed fathers, most studies have used cross-sectional design, and little is known about offspring outcomes beyond childhood. Using prospective data from a community sample (N = 395), we found that paternal depressive symptoms when children were in early adolescence (age 13) predicted offspring depressive and anxiety symptoms at age 21, controlling for baseline youth symptoms, maternal depressive symptoms, and other known correlates of internalizing problems in early adulthood. Associations were not moderated by maternal depressive symptoms or child gender. These results suggest that the unique and long-term effects of paternal depression on children's risk of mood disorders may persist into adulthood.