Does retrieval fluency contribute to the underconfidence-with-practice effect?

Judgments of learning (JOLs) made during multiple study–test trials underestimate increases in performance across those trials, an effect that has been dubbed the underconfidence-with-practice effect. In 3 experiments, the authors examined the contribution of retrieval fluency to the UWP effect immediate and delayed JOLs. The UWP effect was demonstrated with reliable underconfidence on 2 occurring for both kinds of JOL. However, in contrast to a retrieval-fluency hypothesis, fine- analyses indicated that the reliance of JOLs on retrieval fluency contributed minimally to the UWP Our discussion focuses on the status of the retrieval-fluency hypothesis for the UWP effect.