Biomimetic strategies for fabricating musculoskeletal tissue scaffolds: a review

The advancements in musculoskeletal tissue engineering have been substantial in recent decades. Fabrication of biomimetic microenvironment closely resembling the native tissues has been widely accepted as the golden rule for tissue engineering. This paper reviews recent progress in fabrication strategy of biomimetic scaffolds for musculoskeletal tissue engineering from three key aspects: bioinspired materials, biomimetic structures, and biofabrication techniques. The emerging hybrid biofabrication technologies that enable rapid manufacturing of 3D composite constructs with complex features will be a promising pathway toward highly efficient bench-to-bedside translation. Future biomimetic scaffolds should possess modulated functions in response to the dynamic physiological and mechanical environments. This is the prerequisite of future development of reliable, flexible, and cost-effective alternatives to achieve long-term regeneration and good clinical outcomes.